The Impact of Apple Devices on Society Research Paper

The Impact of Apple Devices on Society - Research Paper Example From the discussion it is clear that Apple Inc is a renowned America-based multinational conglomerate operating in software as well as hardware industry. The head office of Apple is situated in Cupertino in the region of California. It was established in the year 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne. It possesses in its assortment variety of products such as iPod, iTunes, iPhone, Apple TV, Mac accessories, and software to gratify customers’ desires. There are about 364 retail stores of Apple operating to present excellent products and /or services to its customers. In addition, the company employs approximately 60,400 employees across the globe to maintain its operations in an efficient way. As the paper highlights Apple has offered more attention to the facet of constant research and development to present various types of innovative products to the people. It facilitated Apple to expand its market share and profitability by a considerable extent. Moreover, it also improved the total sales of its products, thereby amplifying its supremacy in the market as portrayed in the figure below. The sales growth of the products of Apple is also shown in the below diagram, which reveals that the citizens across the globe highly prefer the products of Apple. In fact, the demand and the supremacy of the products of Apple amplified in recent years. Apple is recognized as one of the most successful brands in software market across the globe.

Opression and Inequality Essay Example for Free

Opression and Inequality Essay â€Å"Racism, Oppression, and Inequality within The Welcome Table and Country Lovers† In this paper I will analyze the similarities and differences between Country Lovers written in 1975 by Nadine Gordimer, and The Welcome Table written in 1970 by Alice Walker. The overall theme and concept between The Welcome Table and Country Lovers are racism, oppression, and inequality which I analyze with critical thought and precision. Before I can begin to draw any conclusion as to comparing and contrasting the two stories Country Lovers and The Welcome Table, I must first familiarize myself to several important concepts of each story. These important concepts consist of the plot, theme, list of characters involved, the setting, the style, and the tone of the narrator. Also, what method does the narrator utilize to gain and keep the attention of the reader at a maximum level? The Welcome Table, written by Alice Walker, is one of the most enjoyable and inspiring pieces of literature I have ever read. The Welcome Table’s style is formatted in the third person point of view, but frequently shifts throughout the story. The beginning or the first part of the story is told strictly from the white people’s perspective as they witness an elderly black woman nearly blind, with a lean build and grayish tone to her skin enters their church. The historical development of the African-American woman can be traced within the African-American literary tradition while locating religion as a central influence of her strength character, and dedication (LaGrone, 2009). The author does a superlative job enhancing the story by incorporating such a descriptive nature to the characters. Particularly the main character which was described by her attire as being an old mildewed black dress with missing buttons and a greased stained head rag covering her pigtails. The elderly black woman was further described as having blue-brown eyes with very wrinkled skin. It was also mentioned of how profusely perspiring the elderly black woman was 2 1 2 1. plot, theme, list of characters This sentence is not balanced or parallel. For example, incorrect: The child spent the day singing, dancing, and played in the sandbox. Notice that played is not parallel with singing and dancing. Correct: The child spent the day singing, dancing, and playing in the sandbox. Example: Plot, theme, characters, etc. [Monique Sheffield] 2. The historical development of the If this is a direct quote it should be in quotation marks. However, the quote doesnt support wat you are saying. Consider either using another quote that support what you stated or adding more information that leads up to your quote. [Monique Sheffield] RACISM, OPPRESSION AND INEQUAL 3 when she arrived at the church, which in my opinion illustrates the fatigue and the struggle in which she endured. By incorporating vivid elements of descriptive images, the author made it rather easy to unite with this amazing journey. The race problem is not really an issue of cultural deficiency, racial bias, or structural dislocation. The race problem is an issue of power (Kuykendall, 2005). The story continued in the white people’s perspective after she took her seat, more directly pertaining to the usher who was informed to tell the elderly black woman to leave. The point of view switches to the white women inside the church, due to the fact the white women took it as a personal insult. The constant back and forth changing of the narrator in my opinion, heightens the intensity and emotional depth to this literary work. The narration of the story changed once again to the spouses of the white women who felt as though they were insulted by the mere presence of the elderly black lady. The white men followed the instructions that were given and aggressive with force threw the elderly black woman out of the church. After the elderly woman is thrown out of the church the narration switches back to the main character of the story. The truth is that until we can understand the pain we inflict on each other because of hatred and exclusion, we will never fully understand why racial reconciliation is so essential to the future of American (Waller, 2000). The next episode or set of events introduces the climax in the story. According to Clugston (2010) the climax of a story is the high point of tension that becomes the turning point in which the outcome is determined. We must strive to reinterpret the sociopolitical dynamics of race, to free the mind and heart as much as possible from the mistakes of the past (Winant, 1994). In my opinion the elderly woman’s turning point was the arrival of Jesus. To those of us who believe in 3 1 2 1. which in my opinion illustrates In a comparison/contrast paper keep your opinion out. You are not writing an opnion paper. [Monique Sheffield] 2. The race problem is not really Again, your quotes are not fitting the paper. If you need assistance incorporating sources into your research paper, select the â€Å"Library† tab on the left side of your online classroom. Next, go to Tutorials Sources Incorporating Sources into Your Research Paper. This video focuses on how to effectively incorporate sources into your research assignment. [Monique Sheffield] RACISM, OPPRESSION AND INEQUAL 4 Jesus Christ just as the elderly woman it was truly an epiphany. An epiphany is defined as a profound and sudden personal discovery (Clugston, 2010). After her visual image became clear, and she realized who it was, she started jumping about and slapping her hands on her knees. This is an example of the overwhelming joy and excitement she was experiencing. Jesus was described as wearing an immaculate white, long dress trimmed in gold around his neck and hem, and a red, bright red cape. He was also wearing sandals and had a beard which was centered upon his long brown hair. This statement once again illustrates the profound descriptive nature of the story which contributes to the story’s appearance. According to Clugston (2010), simile is defined as a direct comparison of two objects that are similar in at least one aspect, using like or as to link the similarities. In this particular event the author referenced the face of Jesus Christ to that of a glowing candle. His steps were mentioned to be â€Å"sure† and â€Å"perfect† as if He was walking on the sea. As the elderly woman and Jesus began to walk together she started to tell Him about the many years she took care of them, cooking, cleaning and nursing. We have pursued the shadow, they have obtained the substance; we have performed the labor, they have received the profits; we have planted the vines, they have eaten the fruits (1,200). This excerpt of oppression and injustice was felt by the elderly woman. After releasing all of her frustrations, cares, and problems Jesus smiled at her and instantly she felt as though a burden had been removed. The burden of the elderly woman reflects the theme of the story which is a combination of racism, oppression, and inequality. Another descriptive comparison was related to the ground Jesus and the elderly lady walked on, it was compared to walking on the clouds. A very interesting ending occurred in this story; no one actually knew what happened to the elderly woman. There came about many speculations. The white members of the town never talked about her. Many of the black families along the road stated â€Å"they saw the old 4 1 1. Good job on describing the plot of this story. [Monique Sheffield] RACISM, OPPRESSION AND INEQUAL 5 lady high stepping down the highway; sometimes jabbering in a low insistent voice, sometimes singing, sometimes merely gesturing excitedly with her hands. † Country Lovers written by 1975 by Nadine Gordimer was narrated using the third person point of view. The main characters involved in this particular story were Thebedi, Paulus Eysendyck, and Njabulo. Thebedi, a poor black girl, who was 18 years of age, grew up in the Kraal of South Africa working as a farm hand with her father on the property of her childhood friend Paulus Eysendyck. Paulus was a young, white, 19 year old whose father owned the land. Over the years Paulus grew fond of Thebedi. Paulus’ endearment towards Thebedi was illustrated by bringing Thebedi a painted box from when he attended boarding school. Thebedi also showed her affection toward Paulus by giving him a bracelet she had made out of brass wire. The theme of this story is based around the perils of apartheid, segregation and racism. Their actions (Paulus and Thebedi) exemplified the policies of the South African because they carefully, strategically plan their encounters. Njabulo, a bright young black boy who lives in the Kraal also worked on the farm. Njabulo had a secret crush on Thebedi for years, but did not act on it until Paulus entered Veterinary College. It was at this time that Njabulo asked Thebedi’s father for her hand in marriage. It is customary to distribute brides-wealth to the parents of the bride. Two months into their marriage Thebedi gave birth to a baby girl. At this point in the story the narrator uses descriptive literary terms to entice the reader to become fully engaged. The characteristics of the baby girl were design to initiate the climax of the story. It was mention that the infant’s features were as follows. Her complexion was very light with straight fine hair and her eyes were grey flecked with yellow. These features were very inconsistent with those of both parents being Afro-American. Nevertheless, Njabulo made no 5 1 1. You have summarized some of the story, but have not stated anything that supports the theme. [Monique Sheffield] RACISM, OPPRESSION AND INEQUAL 6 complaints. After Paulus returns home for the holidays, the plot thickens or shall I say takes a turn for the worst. To Paulus’ amazement he overheard the house-servants acquiring about getting a reliable substitute to help out now that Thebedi had a baby. At first glance of the infant Paulus struggled with a grimace of tears, anger, and self- pity. After Paulus asked Thebedi if she had been near the main house with the baby; the way she answered him somewhat confused me. The tone of her voice reflected she cared more about him (Paulus) than the baby. Paulus returned a couple days later to revisit Thebedi and the baby. After remaining in the hut for an extended time, Paulus finally left. The next morning Njabulo found the baby to be dead and buried her. After pathological tests were completed, evidence showed intestinal damage not consistent with death by natural causes. This is another point in the story that thickens the plot, and decreases the credibility of both Paulus and Thebedi. Thebedi rendered a statement at the preliminary examination, â€Å"I saw Paulus pouring liquid into the baby’s mouth. † This statement is a blatant paradox. According to Clugston (2010), a paradox is defined as a contradiction. The comparison and contrast aspect of The Welcome Table and Country Lovers falls into the category of racism, segregation, inequality. In order to give proper respect and credit to the author, I will analyze in depth the tools that were used to portray a perfectly painted picture, starting with The Welcome Table. The setting, the style, the vast proportions of literary terms all combined, paints a vivid reenactment of struggles that Afro-Americans have endured for so many years. For many years Alice Walker has played an integral role contributing to the cause of equal rights for minorities, particularly Afro-Americans. Through the use of her expertise, she has instilled in so many that we must never forget the many years of oppression, filled with endless 6 1 2 3 1. or shall I say takes a turn for Some of the language you are using is informal or conversational in style. Academic writing is structured and formal. What may seem appropriate in everyday conversation is not necessarily appropriate for your essay. [Monique Sheffield] 2. me. Unless you are writing a personal opinion or biographical paper, avoid the use of the personal pronouns I, me, and you. They are considered informal in academic writing. For additional information, visit the Ashford Writing Center located in Constellation. Click on Ch 2. 2. [Monique Sheffield] 3. Thebedi rendered a statement at Explain this more. [Monique Sheffield] RACISM, OPPRESSION AND INEQUAL 7 sacrifices and never ending desire to overcome. Furthermore it is of the uttermost importance to continually strive for advancement. Even though the literary work of Country Lovers deals with racism and segregation, it was based on a romantic and intimate encounter of childhood sweethearts. The Welcome Table portrayed, in my opinion, the true struggles which transpired in the days before the abolishment of slavery. I think the tone portrayed in The Welcome Table showed evidence that when read could very well captivate your entire train of thought. The tone that was used in The Welcome Table increased in strength as the story migrated. All the way to the end of the story, I wanted to continue reading, unlike Country Lovers. In my opinion Country Lovers’ tone was not as strong. The settings of both were written in a time where even though laws were passed to ban or revoke discrimination, it was still apparent and practice regularly. One major difference in my opinion was the style of The Welcome Table compared to that of Country Lovers. Even though both literary works are categorized as being told in the third person, The Welcome Table actually changed narrators several times which in my opinion added life and charisma to the story. For example, The Welcome Table narration went from the reverend to the old lady, back to the usher, then to the white woman of the church, to their husbands, and finally back to the elderly woman. Enclosed in my comparison and contrast essay of The Welcome Table and Country Lovers, you will find a descriptive analysis of the similarities and differences between each piece of literature. I also included the theme, plot, style and list of characters that were involved in each piece. I incorporated several literary terms which aided in the development of each story. Throughout my paper, I also described the difference between the tone of the two authors, and how 7

The Biological Effects Of Ionizing Radiation Biology Essay

The Biological Effects Of Ionizing Radiation Biology Essay The biological effects of ionizing radiation are determined by both the radiation dose and the radiation quality ionization density. To understand the radiation protection concerns associated with different types of ionizing radiation, knowledge of both the extent of exposure and consequent macroscopic dose absorbed gray value, as well as the microscopic dose distribution of the radiation modality is required. The definitions of these variables are discussed below but in general to advance the knowledge of the biological effects of different radiation types one needs to know the dose absorbed, the radiation quality and effectiveness of a particular radiation type to induce biological damage. In this study the biological effect of high energy neutrons is compared to that of a reference radiation type 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays for a cohort of donors, mostly radiation workers. Comparisons are made at different dose levels in blood cells from each donor to ascertain the relative biological effectiveness of the test radiation modality against that of a recognized reference radiation (Hall, 2005). Such studies are essential to determine the radiation quality for high energy neutron sources applicable to practises in radiation protection. In some nuclear medicine applications radionuclides are used to treat malignant disease. For this the use of short lived alpha particle emitters or other radiation modalities that deliver high ionization densities in cells, are particularly attractive. This as the cellular response in relation to inherent radiosensitivity of the effected cells is thought to be more consistent compared to the use of radionuclides that emit radiation with a lower ionization density e.g. ÃŽÂ ²-particles. The relative biological effectiveness of the high energy neutrons used in this study is followed as a function of the inherent radiosensitivity of different individuals. This allows the identification of cell populations that are relatively sensitive or relatively resistant to radiation. As such research material is available to investigate cellular response too Auger electrons. The latter is known to induce biological damage akin to that of alpha particles. A short description of the physical and biological variables applicable to this study is summarised below. Ionizing Radiation The term ionizing radiation refers to both charged particles (e.g., electrons or protons) and uncharged particles (e.g., photons or neutrons) that can impart enough energy to atoms and molecules to cause ionizations in that medium, or to initiate nuclear or elementary-particle transformations that in turn result in ionization or the production of ionizing radiation. Ionization produced by particles is the process by which one or more electrons are liberated in collisions of the particles with atoms or molecules (The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements [ICRU] Report 85, 2011). Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter Ionizing radiation is not restricted to ionization events alone. Several physical and chemical effects in matter such as: heat generation, atomic displacements, excitation of atoms and molecules, destruction of chemical bonds and nuclear reactions may occur. The effects of ionizing radiation on matter depend on the type and energy of radiation, the target, and the irradiation conditions. Radiation can be categorized in terms of how it induces ionizations: Directly ionizing radiation, consist of charged particles such as electrons, protons and alpha particles. Indirectly ionizing radiation consists of neutral particles and/or electromagnetic radiation such as neutrons and photons (ÃŽÂ ³-rays and X-rays). Ionising radiation interacts with matter by: Interaction with the electron cloud of the atom, or by Interaction with the nucleus of the atom. Types of ionizing radiation linked to this study ÃŽÂ ³-rays Ionizing photons (ÃŽÂ ³- and X-rays) are indirectly ionising radiation. These wave like particles have zero rest mass and carry no electrical charge. Low energy (E>2m0c2) may be absorbed by atomic nuclei and initiate nuclear reactions (Cember, 1969). The charged electrons emitted from the atoms, produce the excitation and ionisation events in the absorbing medium. Neutrons Neutrons, similar to ionizing photons are indirectly ionizing radiations; however, these particles do have a rest mass. There is negligible interaction between neutrons and the electron cloud of atoms since neutrons do not have a net electrical charge (Henry, 1969). The principle interactions occur through direct collisions with atomic nuclei during elastic scattering events. In this process, ionisation is produced by charged particles such as recoil nuclei and nuclear reaction products. The production of secondary ionising photons will result in the release of energetic electrons. In turn these charged particles can deposit energy at a considerable distance from the interaction sites (Pizzarello, 1982). Auger electrons Auger electron emission is an atomic-, not a nuclear process. In this process an electron is ejected from an orbital shell of the atom. A preceding event, e.g. electron capture (EC) or internal conversion (IC) leaves the atom with a vacant state in its electron configuration. An electron from a higher energy shell will drop into the vacant state and the energy difference will be emitted as a characteristic x-ray (Cember, 1969). The energy of the x-ray (Ex-ray) being the difference in energy (E) between the two electron shells L and K. Ex-ray = EL -EK Alternatively, the energy may be transferred to an electron of an outer shell, causing it to be ejected from the atom (Fig. 1). The emitted electron is known as an Auger electron and similarly to the x-ray has an energy: EAuger = EΆ -EB where: EΆ = the energy of inner-shell vacancy energy of outer-shell vacancy EB = binding energy of emitted (Auger) electron Auger emission is favoured for, low-Z materials where electron binding energies are small. Auger electrons have low kinetic energies; hence travel only a very short range in the absorbing medium (Cember, 1969). File:Auger Process.svg Fig. 1: Schematic representation of the Auger electron emission process, where an orbital electron is ejected following an ionization event. Dosimetric Quantities Several dosimetric quantities have been defined to quantify energy deposition in a medium when ionizing radiation passes through it. Radiation fields are well described by physical quantities such as particle fluence or air kerma free in air are used. However these quantities do not relate to the effects of exposure on biological systems (International Commission on Radiological Protection [ICRP] Publication 103, 2007). The absorbed dose, D, is the basic physical quantity used in radiobiology, radiology and radiation protection that quantifies energy deposition by any type of radiation in any absorbing material. The International System of Units (SI) of absorbed dose is joule per kilogram (J.kg-1) and is termed the gray (Gy). Absorbed dose, D, is defined as the quotient of mean energy, dÃŽÂ µ, imparted by ionising radiation in a volume element and the mass, dm, of the matter in that volume (Cember, 1969). The absorbed dose quantifies the energy imparted per unit mass absorbing medium, but does not relate this value to radiation damage induced in cells or tissue. The radiation weighted dose (HT) is used as a measure of the biological effect for a specific radiation quality on cells or tissue. It is calculated from equation where DT,R is the mean absorbed dose in a tissue T due to radiation of type R and wR is the corresponding dimensionless radiation weighting factor. The unit of radiation weighted dose is J.kg-1 and is termed the sievert (Sv). Radiation weighting factors are recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (International Commission on Radiological Protection [ICRP] Publication 103, 2007) and are derived from studies on the effect of the micro-deposition of radiation energy in tissue and on its carcinogenic potential. Linear Energy Transfer (LET) Ionizing radiation deposits energy in the form of ionizations along the track of the ionizing particle. The spatial distribution of these ionization events is related to the radiation type. The term linear energy transfer (LET) relates to the rate at which secondary charged particles deposit energy in the absorbing medium per unit distance (keV/ µm). LET is a realistic measure of radiation quality (Duncan, 1977). The LET (L) of charged particles in a medium is defined as the quotient of dE/dl where dE is the average energy locally imparted to the medium by a charged particle of specified energy in traversing a distance dl (Pizzarello, 1982). For high energy photons (x- and ÃŽÂ ³-rays), fast electrons are ejected when energetic photons interact with the absorbing medium. The primary ionization events along the track of the ionizing particle are well separated. This type of sparsely ionizing radiation is termed low-LET radiation. The LET of a 60Cobalt teletherapy source (1.3325 and 1.1732 MeV) is in the range of 0.24 keV/ µm (Vral et al., 1994). Neutrons cause the emission of recoil protons, alpha particles and heavy nuclear fragments during scattering events. These emitted charged particles interact more readily with the absorbing medium and cause densely spaced ionizing events along its track. The p66(Be) neutron beam used in this study has an ionization density of 20 keV/ µm and hence regarded as high-LET radiation. Auger electrons travel very short distances in the absorbing medium due to their low kinetic energies. All the energy of these particles is liberated in small volumes over short track lengths. Ionization densities are therefore very high, up to 40 keV/ µm this is comparable to high-LET alpha particles (Godu et al., 1994). Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) The degree of damage caused by ionizing radiation depends firstly on the absorbed dose and secondly on the ionization density or quality of radiation. Variances in the biological effects of different radiation qualities can be described in terms of the relative biological effectiveness (RBE). RBE defines the magnitude of biological response for a certain radiation quality compared to a distinct reference radiation. It is expressed in terms of the ratio (Quoc, 2009): Megavoltage X-rays or 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays are commonly employed as the reference radiation since these are standard therapeutic sources of radiation. Thus for an identical dose neutrons the biological effect observed would be greater, compared to 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays. The fundamental difference between these radiation modalities is in the spatial orientation or micro deposition of energy. Furthermore, RBE varies as a function of the dose applied increase in RBE is noted for a decrease in dose. By evaluating dose response curves (Fig 2), it is evident that the shoulder of the neutron curve is much shallower (smaller ÃŽÂ ²-value) compared to the reference radiation curve. Therefore changes in RBE are prominent over low dose ranges (Hall, 2005). Fig 2: Dose response curves based on the linear quadratic model demonstrate differences in RBE as a function of dose. Through evaluation of the biological effect curves it is apparent that the RBE for a specific radiation quality may vary. This is characterized by the type of tissue or cells being investigated, dose and dose rates applied oxygenation status of the tissue, energy of radiation and the phase of the cell cycle and inherent radiosensitivity of cells. The RBE increases with a decrease in dose, to reach a maximum RBE denoted RBEM this is calculated from the ratio of the initial slope of the dose response curves for both radiation modalities. RBE LET relationship For a given absorbed dose, differences in the biological response for several cell lines, exposed to different radiation qualities have been demonstrated (Slabbert et al., 1996). Cells exposed to a specified dose low LET radiation do not exhibit the same biological endpoint than those exposed to same dose high LET radiation. This since with low LET radiation a substantial amount of damage may be repaired because the energy density imparted to each ionization site is relatively low. The predominant mode of interaction for this radiation type is indirect through chemical attack from radiolysis of water. As the LET increases, for a specific dose, fewer sites are damaged but the sites that are located along the track of the ionizing particle are severely damaged because more energy is imparted. Thus the probability of direct interaction between the particle track and the target molecule increases with an increase in LET. The RBE of radiation can be correlated with the estimates of LET values. However, as the LET increases, exceeding 10keV/ µm it is no longer possible to assign a single value for the RBE. Beyond this LET, the shape of the cell survival curve changes markedly in the shoulder region compared to low-LET. Since RBE is a measure of the biological effect produced, comparison of the low-LET and high-LET curves will reveal that RBE increases with decreasing dose (Hall, 2005). The average separation in ionizing events at LET of about 100 keV/ÃŽÂ ¼m is equal to the width of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) double strand molecule (Fig. 3). Further increase in LET results in decreased RBE since ionization events occur at smaller intervals than DNA molecule strand separation (Fig. 3) and this energy imparted does not contribute to DNA damage. Fig 3: Average spatial distribution of ionizing events for different LET values in relation to the DNA double helix structure (Hall 2005). Cellular Radiosensitivity Tissue radiosensitivity models In 1906 the radiobiologists Bergonie and Tribondeau established a rule for tissue radiosensitivity. They studied the relative radiosensitivities of cells and from this could predict which type of cells would be more radiosensitive (Hall, 2005). Bergonie and Tribondeau realized that cells were most sensitive to radiation when they are: Rapidly dividing (high mitotic activity). Cells with a long dividing future. Cells of an unspecialised type. The law of Bergonie and Tribondeau was later adapted by Ancel and Vitemberger; they concluded that radiation damage is dependent on two factors: the biological stress on the cell. the conditions to which the cell is exposed pre and post irradiation. Cell division causes biological stress thus cells with a short doubling time express radiation damage at an earlier stage than slowly dividing cells. Undifferentiated rapidly dividing cells therefore are most radiosensitive (Hall, 2005). A comprehensive system of classification was proposed by Rubin and Casarett, cell populations were grouped into 4 categories based on the reproduction kinetics: Vegetative intermitotic cells were defined as rapidly dividing undifferentiated cells. These cells usually have a short life cycle. For example: erythroblasts and intestinal crypt cells and are very radiosensitive. Differentiating intermitotic cells are characterized as actively dividing cells with some level of differentiation. Examples include: meylocytes and midlevel cells in maturing cell lines these cells are radiosensitive. Reverting postmitotic cells are regarded as to not divide regularly and generally long lived. Liver cells is an example of this cell type, these cell types exhibit a degree radioresistance. Fixed postmitotic cells do not divide. Cells beloning to this classification are regarded to be highly differentiated and highly specialized in both morphology and function. These cells are replaced by differentiating cells in the cell maturation lines and are regarded as the most radioresistant cell types. Nerve and muscle cells are prime examples (Hall, 2005). Michalowski proposed a type of classification which divides tissues into hierarchical (H-type) and flexible (F-type) populations. Within this classification cells are grouped in 3 distinct categories: Stem cells, that continuously divide and reproduce to give rise to both new stem cells and cells that eventually give rise to mature functional cells. Maturing cells arising from stem cells and through progressive division eventually differentiate into an end-stage mature functional cell. Mature adult functional cells that do not divide Examples of H-type populations include the bone marrow, intestinal epithelium and epidermis; these cells are capable of unlimited proliferation. In F-type populations the adult cells can under certain circumstance be induced to undergo division and reproduce another adult cell. Examples include; liver parenchymal cells and thyroid cells. The two types represent the extremes in cell populations. It should be noted that most tissue populations exist between the extremes, these exhibit characteristics of both types where mature cells are able to divide a limited number of times. The sensitivity to radiation can be attributed to the length of the life cycle and the reproductive potential of the critical cell line within that tissue (Hall, 2005). Cell cycle dependent radiosensitivity As cells progress through the cell cycle various physical and biochemical changes occur (Fig. 4). These changes influence the response of cells to ionizing radiation. Variations in radiosensitivity for several cell types at different stages of the cell cycle has been documented (Hall, 2005). Following the law of Bergonie and Tribondeau that cells with high mitotic activity are most radiosensitive, it was found that cells in the mitotic phase (M-phase) of the cell cycle are most sensitive. Late stage gap 2 (G2) phase cells are also very sensitive with gap 1 (G1) phase being more radioresistant and synthesis (S phase) cells the most resistant (Domon, 1980). Fig. 4: Cell cycle of proliferating cells representing the different phases leading up to cell division. The G0 resting phase for cells that do not actively proliferate has been included since T-lymphocytes naturally occur in this phase (Hall, 2005). Nonproliferating cells, generally cells that are fully differentiated, may enter the rest phase G0 from G1 and remain inactive for long periods of time. Peripheral T-lymphocytes seldom replicate naturally and remain in G0 indefinately. Lymphocyte Radiosensitivity The hematopoietic system is very sensitive to radiation. Differential blood analyses are routinely employed as a measure of radiation exposure. This measurement is based on the sensitivity of stem cells and the changes observed in the constituents of peripheral blood due to variations in transit time from stem cell to functioning cell (Hall, 2005). It has been shown that lymphocytes, although they are resting cells (G0 phase) which do not actively proliferate nor do have a long dividing future hence do not meet the criteria of a radiosensitive cell type as described above are of the most radio sensitive cells. The reasons for their acute sensitivity cannot be explained (Hall, 2005). Furthermore two distinct subpopulations T-lymphocytes with respect to radiosensitivity were found in peripheral blood. The small T-lymphocyte which is extremely radiosensitive and disappears almost completely from the peripheral blood at doses of 500 mGy (Kataoka, 1974, Knox, 1982 and Hall, 2005). Cytogenetic expression of ionizing radiation induced damage The primary target in radiotherapy is the double helix deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule (Rothkam et al. 2009). This macro molecule contains the genetic code critical to the development and functioning of most living organisms. The DNA molecule consists of two strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. Each strand is made up of four types of nucleotides. A nucleotide consists of a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group and a nitrogen containing base. The nitrogen containing bases are adenine, guanine, thymine or cytosine. Base pairing between two nucleotide strands is universally constant with adenine pairing with thymine and guanine with cytosine (Fig. 5). This attribute permits effective single strand break repair since the opposite strand is used as a template during the repair process. The base sequence within a nucleotide strand differs; the arrangement of bases defines the genetic code. The double helix DNA molecule is wound up on histones and bou nd together by proteins to form nucleosomes. This structure is folded and coiled repeatedly to become a chromosome. Fig. 5: The double helix structure of a DNA molecule consists of two neucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. Figure modified from http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_22 by P Beukes. Ionizing radiation can either interact directly or indirectly with the DNA strand. When an ionization event occurs in close proximity to the DNA molecule direct ionization can denature the strand. Ionization events that occur within the medium surrounding the DNA produce free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide through radiolysis of water. Damage induced by ionizing radiation to the DNA include base damage (BD), single strand breaks (SSB), abasic sites (AS), DNA-protein cross-links (DPC), and double strand breaks (DSB) (Fig. 6). Fig. 6: Examples of several radiation induced DNA lesions. Figure modified from Best B (9) by P Beukes. Low-LET radiation primarily causes numerous single strand breaks, through direct and indirect interaction (Hall, 2005). Single strand breaks are of lesser biological importance since these are readily repaired by using the opposite strand as a template. High-LET radiation damage is dominated by direct interactions with the DNA molecule. Densely ionizing radiation has a greater probability to induce irreparable or lethal double strand breaks since energy deposition occurs in discrete tracks (Hall, 2005). The number of tracks will be fewer but more densely packed compared to low-LET radiation of equivalent doses. Several techniques to quantify chromosomal damage and chromatid breaks have been established. These range from isolating DNA and passing it through a porous substrate or gel (Hall, 2005) by applying an external potential difference too advanced techniques of visually observing and numerating chromosomal aberrations of interphase cells. Cytogenetic chromosome aberration assays of peripheral blood T-lymphocytes to assess radiation damage include but are not limited to: premature chromosome condensation (PCC) assay, metaphase spread dicentric and ring chromosome aberration assay (DCA), metaphase spread fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) translocation assay and cytokinesis blocked micronuclei (CBMN) assay (Fig. 7). Fig. 7: Different cytogenetic assays on peripheral T-lymphocytes for use in biological dosimetry. Figure modified from Cytogenetic Dosimetry IAEA, 2011. PCC occurs when an interphase cell is fused with a mitotic cell. The fusion causes the interphase cell to produce condensed chromosomes prematurely. Chromosomal aberrations can thus be analysed immediately following irradiation without the need for mitogen stimulation or cell culturing. Numeration of dicentrics in metaphase spreads has been used with great success to assess radiation damage in cells since the 1960s (Vral et al, 2010). The incidence of these aberrations follows a linear quadratic function with respect to the dose. Unstable aberrations like dicentrics or centric rings are lethal to the cell hence not passed on to daughter cells (Hall, 2005). In contrast translocations are stable aberrations; these are not lethal to the cell and passed on to daughter cells. Examination of translocations thus provides a long term history of exposure. Although the abovementioned techniques are very accurate and well described, the complexity and time consuming nature of the assays has stimulated the development of automated methods of measuring chromosomal damage. Micronuclei (MN) formation in peripheral blood T-lymphocytes lends itself to automation, since the outcome of radiation insult is visually not too complex with limited variables. DNA damage incurred from ionizing radiation or chemical clastogens induce the formation of acentric chromosome fragments and to a small extent malsegregation of whole chromosomes. Acentric chromosome fragments and whole chromosomes that are unable to engage with the mitotic spindle lag behind at anaphase (Cytogenetic Dosimetry IAEA, 2011). Micronuclei originate from these acentric chromosome fragments or whole chromosomes which are excluded from the main nuclei during the metaphase/anaphase transition of mitosis. The lagging chromosome fragment or whole chromosome forms a small separate nucleus visible in the cytoplasm of the cell. Image recognition software can thus be employed to quantify radiation damage by applying classifiers that describe cell size, staining intensity, cell separation, aspect ratio and cell characteristics when numerating MN frequency in BN cells. The classifiers are fully customizable depending on cell size, staining technique or cell type that will be used. Rationale for this study The principal objective of this study is to define RBE variations for high-LET radiation with respect to radiosensitivity. Specifically this is done for very high energy neutrons and Auger electrons. In general the response of different cell types vary much more to treatment with low-LET radiation compared to high-LET radiation (Broerse et al. 1978). Radiosensitivity differences have been demonstrated for different cancer cell lines (Slabbert et al. 1996) as well as various clonogenic mammalian cells (Hall, 2005) exposed to both high and low-LET radiation. In general there is an expectation and in certain cases some experimental evidence to support less variations in radiosensitivities of cells to high-LET radiation. Furthermore the ranking in the relative radiosensitivity of cell types changed for neutron treatments compared to exposure to X-rays (Broerse et al. 1978). To quantify the radiation risk of individuals exposed to cosmic rays or mixed radiation fields of neutrons and ÃŽÂ ³-rays, several experiments were conducted to ascertain biological damage induced by neutron beams of various energies (Nolte et al., 2007). Clonogenic survival data (Hall, 2005), dicentric chromosome aberrations (Heimers 1994) and micronuclei formation (Slabbert et. al 2010) have been followed. Chromosome aberration frequencies have been quantified and this represent radiation risk to neutron energies ranging from 36 keV up to 14.6 MeV (Schmid et al. 2003). To complement these studies additional measurements have been made for blood cells exposed to 60 MeV and 192 MeV quasi monoenergetic neutron beams (Nolte et al. 2007). Comparisons of RBE values obtained in these studies are shown in figure 1. Significant changes in the maximum relative biological effectiveness (RBEM) of these neutron sources are demonstrated as a function of neutron energy, with a maximum value of 90 at 0.4 MeV. RBEM drop to  ±15 for neutron energies higher than 10 MeV and it appears that the RBEM remain constant up to 200 MeV. The RBEM value of 47 -113 reported by Heimers et al. (1999) is not consistent with these observations. Fig. 1: RBEM values for neutrons of different energies after Nolte et al. (2007) The data shown in Fig. 1 was obtained by using the blood of a single donor. This to ensure consistency in the biological response for different neutron energies used in different radiation facilities in different parts of the world. Keeping the donor constant has the advantage that only a single data set for the reference radiation was needed. These measurements were done over several years. In all these studies, dicentric chromosome aberrations were followed. As informative as these investigations may be, it is doubtful if RBE values obtained from blood samples from a single donor are indeed representative for the wider population to state radiation weighting factors. It is unclear if RBE values for high energy neutrons will vary when measured with cells with different inherent radiosensitivities. Warenius et al. (1994) demonstrated that the RBE of a 62.5 MeV neutron beam increases with increase in radioresistance to 6 MV X-rays. Similarly Slabbert et al (1996) using a 29 MeV p(66)/Be neutron with an average energy of 29 MeV, noted a statistically significant increase in the RBE values for cell types with increased radioresistance to 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays. Although these investigators used 11 different cell types, few of these were indeed radioresistant to 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays. Close inspection of the data shows that the relationship between neutron RBE and radioresistance to photons disappear when the cell type with the highest resistance to ÃŽÂ ³-rays (Gurney melanoma) is removed from the data set Slabbert et al. 1996). In a follow up study the authors failed to demonstrate the relationship for a p(66)/Be neutron beam but such a relationship was demonstrated for a d14/Be neutron beam (Slabbert et al. 2000). It therefore appears that the relationship for RBE and radioresistance is dependent on the selection of cells used in the study as well as the neutron energy. Using lymphocytes Vral et al. (1994) demonstrated a clear reduction RBEM values for 5,5 MeV neutrons with an increase in the ÃŽÂ ±-values of dose effect curves obtained for 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays. This for lymphocytes obtained from six healthy donors. Using only four donors Slabbert et al. (2010) also demonstrated a relationship between RBEM neutrons and radiosensitivity to 60Co y rays. In the latter case the RBEM values are lower as can be expected since these investigators used a higher energy neutron source. Although a significant relationship between these parameters has been demonstrated by the investigators, the cohort of 4 donors in the study is very small. In fact 2 out of the 4 donors have different RBEM values but appear to have the same radiosensitivity. A study using larger number of donors with blood cells exposed to high energy neutrons is clearly needed. This in particular too verify the findings above indicating a different wR for donors of different sensitivity. The studies of RBE variations with neutron energy by Schmid et al., (2003), Nolte et al. (2005) and were conducted dicentric formations observed in metaphase spreads. It is known that more than six months were used to analyse the data for different doses for blood cells obtained from a single donor exposed to a single neutron energy. It follows that some method of automation to assist the radiobiological evaluation of cellular radiation damage is needed to quantify wR values as a function of radiosensitivity. Recently a semi-automated image analysis system, Metafer 4, this holds promise to test numerous donors for micronuclei formations Study to include more participants hence Metaferà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.

Essay --

Identify and discuss factors that affect development and learning and the effects on the development of the individual. Specific reference will also be made to the physical and psychological changes and the effects of ageing on individuals, families and society. Development is the process in which every individual goes through; the process includes learning and acquiring skills, such as sitting, walking, talking and as the process continues the skills become more advanced such as; tying shoe laces. There are five main areas of development; Cognitive, Speech and Language, Social and Emotional, Fine motor skill and Gross motor skill, (Do2learn.com, 2013). According to (Oxforddictionaries.com, 2013), Learning is ‘the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience, or being taught.’ In the first half of this essay it will look at two main factors that contrast one another and affect development and learning, and the effects on the development of children and young people, whilst linking to theory. In the second half of the essay, concentration will be on ageing, focusing from early childhood to adolescence and the physical and psychological changes; alongside the effects on the child, family and society. There are many factors that can affect a child’s or young person’s development and learning; the two considered main factors are biological and social. These two factors are recognised as the nature versus nurture debate; the nature side of the debate believes that the way individuals behave and develop is a result of their genetics, whereas the nurture side believes that an individual’s behaviour and development is shaped by external factors. Focusing on the external factors, these are the factors that are said to influ... ...otionally act more like one. At this stage puberty takes place for both males and females, physically both bodies change in height, weight, and growth of pubic hair and the start of menstruation for females, (Tanner, 1962). There is a strong effect on the families or parents of the adolescent child as they don’t see the child as much. This is due to the adolescent child or teen beginning to strive for independence doing this by spending less time with their family and more with friendships, (Global Post, 2013). In conclusion with the essay focusing on effects of certain factors on development and learning it gave the opportunity to see how vital development is to a child’s growth in all areas of development as both positives and negatives were outlined. Alongside also focusing on ageing and the importance of the physical and psychological changes that take place.

Food and Beverage Essay

Hotel Les Fontaines has a strategy that differs very largely from any of its competitors, as it is one of a kind in its region. The company will focus on delivering a service that provides a more personalized and refreshed service style. There would be more attention to detail especially in the restaurant outlet of which has been proposed as this would be a value added for Les Chalets Des Mosses. Also the operation costs would be lower in the restaurant area compared to rooms, as clients who stay at the hotel are budget guest who like to spend less and in return expect quality service and product. The hotel operates for ten months throughout the year. The restaurant opens for service during lunch and dinner. For the lunch period simple, smart, and affordable dishes catering to the customers needs will be served. As most of the consumers will be children from ages four to twelve and parents from early thirties to late forties, a menu healthy and enjoyable menu for the guests will be designed. Even though quick service would be offered for lunchtime the quality of the food and service would not be compromised. This would allow for the restaurant to make a good first impression in order to encourage the guest to return to Pomodoro On the other hand, the dinner will have a drastically different objective. The average dish will be more luxuries and elegant and will be served in an a la carte fashion. The atmosphere at dinner will promote a sensational and comfortable time for our guests. Both the hotels image and the restaurant harmonize in theme. The hotel Les Fontaines provides a great experience for the clienteles, enticing them to return to Les Chalets des Mosses. Vision: Hospitality is all about the individual and at Les Chalets des Mosses we pride ourselves on our unique service culture. We are in business to meet our customer’s needs and promises that each guest will be treated with a positive service attitude at every point of contact. From the hotel manager to the cleaner and everyone else in-between plays a vital role in delivering a memorable guest experience. Mission: The mission of the restaurant is to deliver the most comfortable and soothing experience for the clients. With exceptional service, responsible stewardship, and high quality food an excellent experience can be provided. Therefore, the Pomodoro’s main objective is to focus on the customers’ best interests. Les Chalets des Mosses provides budget travelers and tourists with a choice of excellent hospitality products that offer excellent value for money, while assuring a good return to owners and inspiration to employees. Objective: The main object of Les Chalets de Mosses is to have a return on investment within two years form Pomodoro’s. Building a loyal customer base and a long-term marketing strategy are what Hotel Les Fontaines is seeking to achieve. Pomodoro is an ambitious concept that is currently, planning on growing and expanding by the year 2020. Also the Pomodoro is trying to aim for eighty to eighty-five percent occupancy rate for the lunch, which will operate for two and a half hours daily. As for dinner Pomodoro’s is trying to attract around seventy to seventy-five percent occupancy. By having a total of hundred twenty seats prepared in the restaurant, the Pomodoro will be the main focus of the company’s F&B branch. The restaurant has made a completely different transition from its original concept. Not only did the restaurant change in its size, the type of services and it dishes the market segments has also changed. The most effective sales and marketing tactics have been selected to define the restaurant’s image. The name, Pomodoro, is the first major change to help identify the new Italian restaurant that has opened in Les Chalets des Mosses. The restaurant also has a bar, which would play an important role as while guest are waiting for the table they could spend time at the bar. During the waiting time guest’s may spend money at the bar allowing the restaurant to further maximize its revenue. Also, this new concept of the bar would be perfect after a long day at the ski slopes. The Hotel Les Fontaines will also incorporate three major principles (Schultz & Horvath, 2008). The first principle is the training and development process of staff members. By creating a strong and effective program for the staff members, the employees will be able to satisfy even the specific needs of the customers. The Hazard analysis and critical points (HACCP) will be incorporated in the training program to deliver a food safety and social responsibility. With this our guests would feel at ease to eat at Pomodoro’s and families would be more than happy to be with their children. The training program will have to take place before the restaurant begins to operate in 2013. The second principle is the ability to operate efficiently. The restaurant should be able to deliver highly effective operations to the clients. Lastly, the culture of customer service should be noted. Without the necessary service to deliver the satisfaction and gratification of the consumer, a loyal customer base cannot be built. Les Fontaines will incorporate the referral marketing for the market strategy. The referral marketing is no doubt the best way to maximize the revenue and raise the awareness of the company and standards to the local customers (Schmitt, Skiera & Bulte, 2011). F&B Strategy: Diversification is one of the strategies that best fit the new operations situation, as Les Fontaines is in search of a new product and market (Gine, Pisano, Sorell, Szigety, 2006). The restaurant has taken extreme measures to differentiate itself from the competition in the Les Mosses region. As the restaurant caters to a niche market, it will have minimum competition with the surrounding business in the region. This is due to the fact that Pomodoro’s offers various activities for children of which the surrounding hotels do not offer. The psychographic, demographic, geographic, and purchase behavior of clients were analyzed in order to help Les Chalets des Mosses strengthen it own image (Yankelovich, Meer, 2006). In order to create such strategy, the restaurants must create an engaging and rigorous loyalty program. The goal of the hotel is to have local customers who will visit the hotel on a regular bases during the various events that take place in the region of les mosses. Since, the hotel will promote its special offers via newsletter through the zip code, not only does the newsletter grab the customers attention, but also the local customers will become frequent clienteles. This marketing strategy would benefit the whole hotel, not just the restaurant. By sending out newsletters promoting events or special offers in both the hotel and restaurant it may encourage guest to not only use the food and beverage outlets but also to stay and enjoy the experience. The company will take a step forward by taking surveys of the clienteles regarding the activities and subjects that interest them. This way Les Fontaines will be able to predict what the clientele’s hobbies or taste are and provide a service that incorporates partnerships with other companies. For example Pomodoro’s can promote a snow-tubing event to the customers by providing ticket deals. According to Michael Porter, a Harvard Business School professor and the reigning guru of competitive strategy, competition within an industry is driven by five basic factors (Porter, 1979): 1. Threat of new entries. 2. Threat of substitute products or services. 3. Bargaining power of suppliers. 4. Bargaining power of buyers. 5. Rivalry among existing firms. We understand that using one strategy is impossible in todays society, as the range of customers are more diverse as globalization has a larger impact in today’s society. The Les Fontaines will be promoted in various ways. The newsletter will act as a tool to commercialize the company’s anniversaries and offers. Unlike, the other rivals the company will begin to engage the customers with a more personal touch. The snow tubing company in Les Mosses will further advertise the hotel and vice verse due to their partnership. Furthermore, the referrals will function as the company’s key promotional tool. Both Pomodoro and hotel Les Fontaines will attract customers through the various services, products, offers, and business proposals. None of the competing hotels and F&B outlets substantially reshaped their business strategies and market segments like Pomodoro’s. The awareness of the hotel will most definitely rise as the customers and other partnering companies spread the word. The company will have a dominating number of advertisements in comparison to the other competing ventures due to their various partnerships. The hotel provides a pleasant and sophisticated service that was specifically designed to differ from other surrounding hotels within the region. Both the restaurant and the hotel will offer a personalized touch to the service that will be provided. This will attract new customers and build strong customer relationships, as the customers will return to the venture on a frequent basis. Despite the cluttered market, the unique products that were designed to meet the specific needs of the customers makes the Les Fontaines stand out from its competitors. List of References: Gine. F, Pisano. G, Sorell. M , Szigety. M. (2006). R&D Portfolio Strategy, Diversification And Performance: An Information Perspective. (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University) Retrieved from http://hbr.org/1979/03/how-competitive-forces-shape-strategy/ar/1 Porter, M. E. (1979). How competitive forces chape strategy. (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University)Retrieved from http://hbr.org/1979/03/how-competitive-forces-shape-strategy/ar/1 Schmitt, P., Skiera, B., & Bulte, C. V. D. (2011). Why customer referrals can drive stunning profits. (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University)Retrieved from http://hbr.org/2011/06/why-customer-referrals-can-drive-stunning-profits/ar/1 Schultz, G. C., & Horvath, A. G. (2008). Strategic plan: 2008-2013. Informally published manuscript, Finance & Business, Pennsylvania State Yankelovich D, Meer D. (2006). Rediscovering Market Segmentation. Retrieved from: http://hbr.org/product/rediscovering-market-segmentation/an/R0602G-PDF-ENG

Mr Taha Uppal

Strategies towards betterment for team management The research will be based on the following questions: How can we eliminate the harmful factors of staff management I. E performance appraisal? How can the employee's play an important part for the organizational success? What are the feedbacks usually received by the employer? 1. 1 INTRODUCTION TO MARKS AND SPENCER: Marks and Spencer also popularly known as M is British based clothing and food retailer headquartered in the city of Westminster, London, United Kingdom.It has more than 700 outlets located all over the United Kingdom while 300+ stores are coated all over the world. Most of them are located in the European countries, like Hungary, Greece, Czech Republic and Romania etc. Marks & Spencer is also trying to expand in the Asian markets with quite a few stores opening in India and China recently. Michael Marks and Thomas Spencer founded M in the year 1884 in a city of England, Leeds.According to BBC news, Marks and Spencer is d oing better in their food department as compared to their general merchandise as the turnover is split in 54% and 46% respectively. Marks and Spencer aims to provide a very high quality DOD to their customers, that is why, it is one of the most successful food retailers in the United Kingdom. The well known brands, which sell their products with the brand name M are Autograph, Indigo collection, Classic collection, Collection and lastly blue harbor. 1. INTRODUCTION TO PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL: Performance appraisal or performance review is an analysis of an employee's work habits undertaken at a fixed point in time to determine the degree to which stated objectives and expectations have been reached. Performance appraisal or review is very beneficial and important for the evaluation of the staff and of course for the effective management. Appraisals are of great help regarding organization's employee and also play a vital role in improving organizational performances.Formal performance appraisals are conducted every year normally in the last half of the year to review how the organization is performing and what strategies should be undertaken to improve the organizations performance. It is a straight line process for example the staff is appraised by their managers, the managers are appraised by the directors, and the directors are appraised by the Coo's who are generally appraised by the founder or the chairman of the company. 2. 1 TYPES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL: The different types of performance appraisals are formal annual performance appraisals, handwriting analysis, skill or Job related tests, informal one to one review discussions, probationary reviews, survey of opinion of others who have been dealing with the staff, counseling meetings, observation on the Job and assessment centers including observed group exercises and test presentations. 1. 2. PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL PROCESS: Performance appraisal is a process which takes place quarterly or yearly and is the process of interaction between the employees and their managers. In this process the performance of the employee is assessed, with the manager telling or describing the employees their weaknesses and strengths and also identifying the opportunities that how can the employee improve their performance within the organization. Performance appraisal is the least liked responsibility any manager has to perform.The first step which comes in performance appraisal is review preparation. In this process the manager makes the objectives that the organization wants to meet in the future. An analysis of the employees is then taken out because employees or individuals must know what the organization is expecting from them and how they can work to achieve the objectives stated by the firm. Step two in performance appraisal is the assessment. This step is all about giving the timely feedback as it has proved to be very beneficial for the organization.For instance if an employee works well to achieve an objective, the positive feedback should be given to them as soon as possible rather than waiting for weeks to let them know as it might have a negative effect on their confidence as well as performance level. Step three is reviewing communication. This is all about reviewing the past and the current performance of the employee and if the performance is not up to the mark the manager should politely explain them that what should be done to improve their performance. Step four in the process is appropriate setting.Make sure that the atmosphere where the manager is going to deliver the appraisal is very friendly and welcoming. No threats should be given to the employee as this might De-motivate them and as a result they may not be able to perform 100%. Step five in the process is delivering, for instance it Leary explains the appraisal in simple language as the usage of the code words or difficult words might make it difficult for them (staff or employee) to understand it pr operly and they may have confusion which might proved to be harmful for the employee and also for the organization.The final step in this process is encouragement. At the end of the process the manager's responsibility is to encourage the employee and boost their confidence by adding words like we have faith in you or we trust your abilities or you are capable. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 0 INTRODUCTION In this chapter the past and the current strategies of Marks & Spencer will be discussed and in the end of this chapter we will also give a brief explanation about how employer can improve their Performance appraisal (PA) process.There will also be discussions on the employees and the manager roles that how can they contribute for a better service and reputation of the organization. First of all we will talk about the staff management strategies of Marks & Spencer for instance, how they benefited from those strategies, what were the drawbacks of those strategies and what did Mark s & Spencer did to solve those issues or problems arising by implementing those strategies.Performance appraisal helps in evaluating the employee's performance as it gives a clear light on how an employee can improve their performance and skills. However, performance appraisal in depth will be discussed this chapter. 2. 1 THE EVOLUTION OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL: Sometime near World War 1, (WAD Scott) has the credit to present the world with what performance appraisal is. However, performance appraisal was known by the mid asses and became very popular in the organization or companies.McGregor (1957) also played a vital role in discussing about performance appraisal in sass's and ass's. It's a process by which the individual tries to look in the future with some valuable assumptions and to plan what should be done in the future to meet their goals. Performance appraisal helps in goal setting. In the year 1970, this process of performance appraisal became more widespread and many of th e firms started using this process in order to gain success however, by practicing this process a large number of legal cases were brought.In the years sass's and sass's the process of performance appraisal became very popular and according to Williams (1998) it improved the performance up to a certain extent and also generated motivation which is very useful for an organization. According to Fletcher (2008), performance appraisal is conducted differently in the Western and the Asian cultures however; both of these cultures use this process and are benefiting from it despite the fact that around 90% or more staff doesn't like this process. 2. 2 WHY IS PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SO NECESSARY?Questions like why performance appraisal is used in companies when it did not exist in the past and the companies were still doing great? Why is it so important to use performance appraisal? Can't an organization run efficiently and effectively without the performance appraisal system? Weiss and Buckl ey (1998) tried to give an answer for this by stating that performance appraisal is very useful because it gives an idea to the employees how can they improve their performance and also this process helps in rising their commitment towards their organization.There is great importance of performance appraisal within the firm. The organization whether small or big, private or government or any other type of firm should be exempt from having a formal performance appraisal (PA) program. PA process has benefits like improved immunization within the firm, addressing the problem and tries to resolve them through this process of PA and gives the employee confidence and boosts their morale.However, while planning performance appraisal process the employer should bear in mind that it is a slow and time consuming process and there might be some obstacles during the process which for some time may make this process even slower than expected. We can see the companies who have introduced this pro cess of performance appraisal are the ones who do the most business in their respected fields such as Ezra, Louis Button, Marks & Spencer, Gucci, Hugo Boss etc.When employees know that they are an important part of an organization and all their suggestions or ideas are valuable they even work harder so that they can get promotions or there may be an increase in their salaries and this can only be done by performance appraisal process. PA process not only identifies the training needs within an organization or firm but also identifies the hidden talent which may have a very positive effect on the firm's reputation.For instance if the staff is highly trained they are in a better position to deal with all their customers which plays a very positive role towards the success of an organization. . 3 PURPOSE OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL: The most effective purpose to use performance appraisal is to improve the performance of the employees who are working for an organization. There are two most important purposes for which the performance appraisal is used one of which is maintenance of organization control and secondly to measure the efficiency with which the company's human resources are being used. Cummings 1973) however, there are other purposes of performance appraisal as well for instance it helps in improving the morale of the employees working for the organization, more importantly also identifying when does the staff or employees need training, communication improvements, counseling and setting targets which the organization aims to meet (Britton and Gold 2003-04). As discussed above performance appraisal is used to determine the strengths and weaknesses off the employees and providing them with the best training in order for them to give their best at work.However, by conducting the performance appraisal process both the organizations and the employees have advantages for example McGregor (1972) in his paper ‘An uneasy look at performance appraisal' stated that performance appraisal meets the needs of OTOH the employees and the organization however, the difference is it meets three needs in total one for which is organization and the other two for the employees or the individual. Bowels and Coats (1993) conducted a survey which was sent to 250 West midland companies in the year 1992, where the organization were asked the question on the effectiveness of performance appraisal in the organization.However, in the results they found out that the performance appraisal plays an effective role to improve the communication skills of the employees and also improves the communication between the employees and the employer which has many benefits costly in favor of the organization. On the other hand it was very useful for when and how the training is needed for a number of employees to improve their skills. However, around 90% of the employees did not favor the performance appraisal process and commented it has certainly no use and is time was ting.Many organizations want to become the best in productivity or simply want to produce more and quality products so in order to achieve all of these objectives organizations choose and introduce performance appraisal process within the organization as this is the most successful way of achieving goals such as higher productivity or lean reduction. This process of performance appraisal gives a clear direction that where the organization is heading towards or what are the goals the organization or the firm.As discussed before, it not only measures a firm's employee's performance but also gives a clear picture of an organization's performance. The example to illustrate this is performance appraisal measures the work done by the employees and also the organization on a weekly or quarterly basis. An organization can have all the information of their employees and their productivity by using this process. Another useful purpose of performance appraisal is that it gives a clear picture to the employees that where do they stand and what are they supposed to do in order to improve their skills and position within the organization.This way the organization can have a full advantage of their work force because if their employees need training, they train them and as a result the work force becomes very useful and experienced which in the long run is very beneficial for the organization as well as the employees. 2. 4 BEHAVIOR MAINTENANCE MODEL (CUMMINGS AND SWABS): The IBM model which was presented by Cummings and Swabs attempts to show owe the employees are motivated and opt to perform well within the organization.In their model they tried to explain the IBM model in four different steps. The first step in this model is goal aspirations which lead to goal attainment. When the goal attainment is achieved by the employee it gives them a sense of Job satisfaction and they become more focused on their Job and try to work even more hard. However, when the employee is satis fied with their Job they become automatically motivated towards their work which is very effective for the organization. 2. A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL IN MARKS AND SPENCER: performance appraisal give Marks & Spencer all the required information about their employees as it helps M&S to help improve their skills through training and making sure that they are capable enough for the Job they are being trained for. As most of the big companies or retailers conduct performance appraisal once or twice every year, Marks & Spencer is also one of the British companies known for conducting performance appraisal twice every year.In this process the employees get feedback from their managers about their performance and if the performance of the employees is not up to the mark they are suggested with different strategies to adopt n order to improve their performance as it is believed that the employees play the most important part in an organization's success and thus are the mo st important and effective assets of any organization like Marks & Spencer. The performance records are encouraged to use by the employees as it plays an important factor in setting up the personal objectives that support their continued development.Whenever an appraisal system is carried out at Marks & Spencer (normally takes every 12 months to conduct an appraisal) discussions are being made about the current progress of the company as well as the employees and a lot of new ideas are narrated about how to improve the concerned areas within the organization. These meetings are always done by the managers who work in M regarding their employees and are kept confidential. If any of the employees or workers at M do not perform well they are given more training and make sure that they understand how the organization works and operates.Rewards are given to the employees who prove that they are working best and the organization is benefiting from their efforts which are being put in. For instance in Marks and Spencer if the sales exceed the expected number or are higher than expected all the employees are given a bonus and also receive a bonus gift voucher of 20% which in fact plays a vital role in staff motivation. Also according to the research on motivation conducted by Frederic Taylor money is the only motivator and the only reason due to which the employees work hard to achieve their and the organization's objectives they work for.According to Taylor â€Å"If the workers were paved per item made, they would want to make more and work harder. † Marks and Spencer uses Tailor's theory by providing their employees or staff with handsome salaries as they think to keep the staff motivated paying them with bonuses and retreating them with some discount cards would be beneficial for the organization and as the staff will put in their efforts to make M a success by providing their customers a better service and by creating a friendly atmosphere in the stores whi ch obviously every customer likes.On the other hand, M also uses Herbage's two factor theory by paying them with handsome salaries but more important to note according to Herbage's theory is that M make their employees feel special and important in the business as the upper management ask for suggestion from all the employees and also providing them with the best working environment to motivate hem.As seen in the table below Marks and Spencer has got the highest reputation in the recent years as compared to their rivals such as Sad, tests, Morison, Ginsburg and Waitress and that's only done with the fair and proper selection of the employees for the Jobs through interviews and as well as the tests. By going through the process M&S makes sure that the right candidate is selected for the Job and the organization can benefit from them. 2. STRATEGIES THAT MARKS AND SPENCER USED IN THE PAST: Marks and Spencer in the past have tried a lot of strategies to improve their staff performance. The strategy which Marks and Spencer used in the past was to sell its products on discounted prices or higher sales which at one point gave rise to the sales but on the other hand when people realized the clothes designs are the same and not changing their sales fell dramatically. M&S did not emphasize on innovation but they tried to grab shopper's attention by advertising and give them great deals and high discounts on their products.Another strategy that M favored was expansion overseas as the top management thought it's the biggest opportunity to expand abroad because in that way M&S will see a rise in their sales. The main focus f M&S was to target the European markets specially Germany because in the recent years the population of Germany increased from 65 million to 80 million and also is the biggest exporter after USA with a lot of potential and industrial strength.However, firstly M&S planned to expand in Germany in the asses but later dropped this strategy because the prope rty costs were too high at that time but the main reason to drop this strategy was the recession of the German economy in asses. However in the late in asses the market position of Germany looked attractive and impressive which therefore forced M&S to expand in to the German market. Marks and Spencer also played a vital role regarding waste as an estimate states that the waste all over the United Kingdom is around 400 tones which comes from different parts of the industry such as construction, households or discharged packaging.The waste that comes out is not recycled properly and the result is landfill sites which takes many years to decompose and is also very harmful for the human health. However, the strategy that Marks and Spencer put emphasis on is that in the recent years 2010-2011 they have tried to achieve a recycle rate around 90% and also they have tried and achieved the reduction in waste by around 20%. Marks and Spencer in the year 2006-7 had 133 million clothes hangers and instead of throwing or recycling them the company used around 80% of the hangers again. 2. . 1 OPPORTUNITIES FOR IN THE GERMAN MARKET: M&S focused on expanding in the German market because the GAP of Germany is about three times higher than the United Kingdom with a staggering El 5000 billion. German consumer has a 50% higher expenditure than the Auk's market also 22% higher than France which is the second biggest market in the Europe. Inflation rate is under 2% in the Germany which attracted the Marks and Spencer management the cost to expand in the German market with expectation of higher sales which M was lacking in the United Kingdom.According to the research conducted by the well known news channels CNN and BBC M had examined the customers need in Germany for instance what exactly did the customer want and catered accordingly. 2. 7 MARKS & SPENCER CURRENT STRATEGIES: The current aim of M is to become the world's most sustainable brand by the year 201 5 and for that they are following a plan called plan A. The plan A consist about many things about how to make world a better place to live with a few things which ops the list in plan A are cut carbon emissions, reduce waste and importance on health and well being.As the world is getting more educated day by day which means people are aware of what should be done to make this planet a better place to live in and also become very conscious about environmental and also for the natural issues. This is the reason for which M&S launched plan A in the year 2010. The primary focus in this plan is to change the climate and also reducing the waste. 2. 8 EVALUATION: As discussed in this chapter that Performance appraisal is very useful for any type of organization but there are always some exceptions.For example, if the managers fail to grade their staff according to their performance there are quite high chances that the company or the organization could land in hot water. So it is very important that the manager s should not grade their employees on personal assessment but should only grade them according to their performance which would only help the firm to achieve success in the future. CHAPTER 3- METHODOLOGY 3. 0 INTRODUCTION: Methodology is a set of practice to regain information about something. In other rods it is a choice about what data and information to gather.The information that will be obtained will also be used in the outcome and also be compared to the literature review In order to have an appropriate evaluation. One should keep in mind some factors when developing a successful methodology. I tried to contact the Marks and Spence's business and management analyst but it was too difficult to have a decent reply from them. Developing a methodology is not at all an easy task and requires different types of techniques and hard work in order to gather some useful information. 3. 1 TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION: